Immersive experiential-flipped AR for culinary skill learning: psychological mechanisms, learning outcomes, and gender differences

Culinary skill training, especially knife skills, often relies on instructor demonstration and imitation but lacks real-time feedback, which may delay error correction, increase anxiety, and lead to uneven learning outcomes among students in practical classroom settings and hands-on training activities. Although Augmented Reality (AR) has potential for professional training, its use in vocational education and the psychological mechanisms supporting engagement remain underexplored. This study developed the Immersive Experiential-Flipped AR (IEFT-AR) approach, integrating flipped learning, experiential learning, and AR feedback to support procedural skill acquisition and engagement. Using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, data were collected from culinary students across two semesters through performance assessments, surveys, and interviews. Results showed stable skill performance over time and significant gender differences. Structural equation modeling and mediation analyses indicated that learning persistence was influenced indirectly through presence, flow, creative self-efficacy, and learning attitude, highlighting the importance of psychological processes over direct technological effects. Qualitative findings further showed that real-time feedback enhanced confidence and immersion supported sustained attention during practice and repeated skill rehearsal. These findings present IEFT-AR as a psychologically grounded instructional design that promotes sustained engagement and stable performance, extending AR applications to procedural vocational education.