The impact of teachers’ TK and TPACK in their composed SVVR on students’ active learning and learning engagement: a multilevel structural equation modeling analysis

This study examined the relationship among teachers’ technological pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK), the spherical video-based virtual reality (SVVR) they composed, and students’ active learning and learning engagement. Fifty-three teachers composed their own SVVR and implemented it in the educational field with 1,208 students. Multilevel structural equation modeling was employed to analyze this nested dataset. The findings revealed two critical factors in teacher-composed SVVR: technological knowledge (TK) and TPACK (i.e., TK-SVVR and TPACK-SVVR). Interestingly, they played quite different roles; TK-SVVR showed a positive relationship with students’ learning engagement while TPACK-SVVR positively linked to students’ active learning.