School ecosystem of technology education model (SETEM) for P-12: Comparing perceived importance and current situations from principals’ perspectives

This study examines technology integration in P–12 education by comparing principals’ perceptions of the current state (School Ecosystem of Technology Education Model, SETEM) and the perceived ideal state (Ideal SETEM) of school-level technological readiness and teacher competence. Using a quantitative research design, survey data were collected from 66 school principals in northern Taiwan and analyzed through Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings reveal clear discrepancies between perceived importance and current practice. While instructional material resource readiness and human resource readiness are emphasized in the ideal model, the current model prioritizes object readiness. Across both models, leadership support consistently emerges as a key factor influencing teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) and its foundational knowledge domains. By adopting a dual-model perspective, this study highlights gaps between ideal expectations and actual practices in school-level technology integration and underscores the critical role of school leadership in shaping conditions that support teachers’ development of technology integration competencies.