Introduction

In the nineteenth century, British scholar, Herbert Spencer, mentioned in his 1857 work, What Knowledge is Worth Most? that curricular activities must be beneficial to the development of society, with “the application of knowledge” and “how to achieve self-preservation” as the standards of judgment. In order of importance, knowledge of worth should constitute “those activities which directly minister to self-preservation,” “those activities which, by securing the necessaries of life, indirectly minister to self-preservation,” “those activities which have for their end the rearing and discipline of offspring,” “those activities which are involved in the maintenance of proper social and political relations,” and “those miscellaneous activities which fill up the leisure part of life, devoted to the gratification of the tastes and feelings.” To sum up Spencer’s claim, all learning activities of worth must be related to “science.”