Challenges to educational revolution: The establishment of western primary education in 1904 in ch’ing china and the ferment of national education

Using historical method with first-hand sources, this article explores the planning, implementation and modification of western primary education based on the concept of French and German national education, including general, public, compulsory and free educations. As a revolution transformation, Gui-Mao Educational System was established in 1904 and overthrew the old Chinese school system. Borrowed from Japan, the system encountered several difficulties during operation, and therefore adjustments were made to better accommodate changes. For popularity, it used the premises of old academies, temples, shrines and public houses. Half-day schools were established, the program and study-years were shortened and brief short-term schools were established to prepare for enacting constitution later. Despite permission of private studios, the system improved the studios. The concept of compulsory education was also introduced and plans were implemented to promote the concept. Only state junior primary schools were free. The new system exhibited several characteristics of national education but it was not formally established until Republican China in 1940. This special reform experience is worthwhile to learn for later educational reformers.