Carbon-based materials derived from green and sustainable chemistry: Current perspectives for electrocatalysis and energy applications

Green and sustainable chemistry is pivotal in tackling the growing global demand for clean energy and environmental sustainability. This review focuses on carbon-based materials, derived from renewable or waste biomass resources, as emerging, eco-friendly alternatives in electrocatalysis and energy storage applications. These materials possess inherent advantages such as high surface area, superior electrical conductivity, structural tunability, and chemical stability, making them suitable candidates for key reactions including the carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2RR), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Methodologically, we explore green synthesis approaches—such as hydrothermal carbonization, pyrolysis, and low-energy chemical treatments—that align with sustainable practices by minimizing hazardous reagents and energy consumption. We further analyze recent advances in heteroatom doping (e.g., N, S, P) and hierarchical structural engineering, which enhance catalytic performance by tuning electronic properties and improving ion/mass transport pathways. Our findings underscore that porous carbon, graphene, carbon nanotubes, and carbon dots significantly boost the efficiency of fuel cells, supercapacitors, and rechargeable batteries. However, challenges persist in terms of scalability, reproducibility, and understanding the complex structure–activity relationships. To address these limitations, we recommend a concerted interdisciplinary approach involving materials science, surface chemistry, and process engineering. Future research should prioritize the development of standardized synthesis protocols, real-time performance monitoring, and closed-loop recycling strategies. By consolidating current knowledge and identifying strategic opportunities, this review aims to guide the rational design of next-generation carbon materials, ultimately contributing to the advancement of sustainable energy technologies.